Real Number Essay

1. How do modules help you to reuse code in a program? It reduces the duplication of a code within a program by reusing the module that was written once. 2. Name and describe the two parts that a module definition has in most languages. The Header and a Body First the Header indicates a starting point Second the Body is a list of statements 3. When a module is executing, what happens when the end of the module is reached? Its executed and returned back to the point in the main program where it was sidetracked from 4. What is a local variable? What statements are able to access a local variable? A variable is declared inside a local module in which it is the only statement within a module 5. In most languages, where does a local variable’s scope begin and end? It begins at the variables declaration within a module and it ends at the end of the module in which the variable is declared. 6. What is the difference between passing an argument by value and passing it by reference? By the value only a copy of the arguments value is passed and by reference it is passed into a special modifications parameter. 7. Why do global variables make a program difficult to debug? It is because the global variables is used throughout all modules and plus they are hard to track. Algorithm Workbench 1. Design a module named timesTen. The module should accept an Integer argument. When the module is called, it should display the product of its argument multiplied times 10. Module Main () Call timesTen Module timesTen (Integer Value) Declare integerValue Set result = value*10 Display result End Module 5. Design a module named getNumber, which uses a reference parameter variable  to accept an Integer argument. The module should prompt the user to enter a number and then store the input in the reference parameter variable. Module getNumber (Integer Ref value) Display â€Å"Display a number† Input number End Module Module main () Declare Integer number x = 1 Declare Real number y = 3.4 Display (x, â€Å" † ,y) Call changeUS (x, y) Display (x, â€Å" † ,y) End module 6. What will the following pseudocode program display? Declare Integer x = 1 Declare Real y = 3.4 Display x, † â€Å", y Call changeUs( x, y) Display x, † â€Å", y End Module Module changeUs( Integer a, Real b) Set a = 0 Set b = 0 Display a, † â€Å", b End Module It will not display anything since there is nothing within the quotation marks 7. What will the following pseudocode program display? Module main() Declare Integer x = 1 Declare Real y = 3.4 Display x, † â€Å", y Call changeUs( x, y) Display x, † â€Å", y End Module Module changeUs( Integer Ref a, Real Ref b) Set a = 0 Set b = 0.0 Display a, † â€Å", b End Module As far as the module you would think that the displays would show something. But in both strings within the quotations marks both are blank to display. Programming Exercises 1. Kilometer Converter Design a modular program that asks the user to enter a distance in kilometers, and then converts that distance to miles. The conversion formula is as follows: Miles = Kilometers Ãâ€" 0.6214 Module main () Declare Real Kilometers Display â€Å"Enter a distance in kilometers† Input kilometers Call conversion (kilometers) End Module Module conversion (Realvalue) Declare Realmiles Set miles = value*0.6214 Display miles 2. Sales Tax Program Refactoring Programming Exercise 6 in Chapter 2 was the Sales Tax program. For that exercise you were asked to design a program that calculates and displays the county and state sales tax on a purchase. If you have already designed that program, refactor it so the subtasks are in modules. If you have not already designed that program, create a modular design for it. Module main () Declare Realpurchase Display â€Å"Enter the amount of purchase† Input purchase Call Module totalState (purchase) Call Module totalCounty(purchase) Declare Real totalTax Declare Real totalSale Set totalTax = totalState + totalCounty Set totalSale = purchase + totalTax Display â€Å"Your total state tax is†, totalState Display â€Å"Your total county tax is†, totalCounty Display â€Å"Your total tax is†, totalTax Display â€Å"Your total of your sale is†, totalSale End Module Module totalState (real Ref purchase) Set totalState sales tax = purchase*0.04 End Module Module totalCounty (real Ref purchase) Set totalCounty sales tax = purchase*0.02 End Module

Business Communications Essay

* Interim deadlines may be set by individual tutors * You must choose at least one of the two presentations referred to below in Tasks 2 and 6. It is expected that the presentations will take place the week beginning 21st January. A summary of the Assessment and Grading Criteria In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all the learning outcomes for the unit. The assessment criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit. Summary of the Edexcel Assessment and Grading Criteria| To achieve a pass grade the evidence must show that the learner is able to:| To achieve a merit the evidence must show that, in addition to the pass criteria, the learner is able to:| To achieve a distinction grade the evidence must show that, in addition to the pass and merit criteria, the learner is able to:| P1 Explain different types of business information their sources and purpose.| M1 Analyse the content of P1| D1 Evaluate the appropriateness of business information used to make strategic decisions.| P2 Present complex internal business information using three different methods| M2 Expand on P5 and offer an analysis of the legal and ethical issues| D2 Evaluate the effectiveness of business information and its communication as key contributors to the success of an organisation, using examples to illustrate your points. Unit 4: Business Communications learning outcomes:- 1. Understand different types of business information 2. Be able to present business information effectively 3. Understand the issues and constraints in relation to the use of business information in organisations 4. Know how to communicate business information using appropriate methods. Assignment Task 1 Scenario – You have applied for a job in marketing communications working for Next plc (or another organisation of your choice). Prepare a paper entitled, â€Å"An explanation, analysis and evaluation of different types of information sources and purpose.† (P1, M1, D1). Please note that if you are aiming for a pass, you only need to write an explanation. If you are aiming for the merit you need to offer a detailed analysis and for a distinction you will need to demonstrate that you have evaluated your analysis e.g. look at the advantages and disadvantages of using various types of information sources. Task 2 Scenario You have been successful in your interview and you have been offered the job of assistant marketing communications advisor. Working with another member of the team, your first job is to prepare and deliver a 10 minute presentation on the subject of marketing research. This is to take place the week beginning the 21st January. Continuing to work with your partner, prepare a memorandum report for your supervisor, Jayne Koweleski, explaining the importance of competitor analysis, and design a press release for the general public, informing them of the benefits of on-line shopping with Next. (P2) Task 3 In a memorandum report to your supervisor write up an evaluation examining advantages and disadvantages of various types of business communications, in helping an organisation to improve its performance and be successful. Use a variety of examples to support your evaluation (D2). Task 4 Working with someone else in your marketing communications team, produce two different examples of corporate communications. One must be an advertisement for the press and the other a story board for a TV advertisement. This could be for NEXT plc or an organisation of your choice (P3). Task 5 Prepare an evaluation of two different types of external business communication. One could be a TV advert and another could be a press release. Examine the communication methods and assess their strengths and weaknesses. In the conclusion of your evaluation suggest ways in which the different forms of communication could be improved (P4). Task 6 Working with another member of the team, prepare and deliver a 10 minute presentation, the week beginning 21st January, entitled, â€Å"Understanding the legal, ethical and operational aspects of using business information†. In your presentation include reference to the Data Protection Act 1998, Freedom of Information Act 2000, The Computer Misuse Act 1990, backing up stored information, security of information, health and safety and organisational policies. (P5, P6). Task 7 Write an essay entitled, â€Å"An analysis of legal and ethical issues facing modern business.† (M2) Task 8 Prepare a training session for your colleagues on how to effectively communicate business information. Include in the session: understanding the audience (e.g. gender, expected attentiveness), the use of body language, verbal communication, listening, formal and informal communications (e.g. Meetings) written communication (memorandum), visual (e.g. the use of flow charts, graphs and pictures) electronic communications (e.g. e-mail) (P7).

Free Trade Zones in UAE and Economic Development Research Paper - 2

Free Trade Zones in UAE and Economic Development - Research Paper Example This paper focuses on two companies only i.e. Abu Dhabi Airport Free Zone and Dubai Media City Free Zone. Abu Dhabi Airport Free Zone (ADAFZ) Positive Contributions to the UAE The Abu Dhabi Airport Free Zone is a business and logistics park which is being established by the Abu Dhabi Airports Company (ADAC). The creation of ADAFZ is a milestone for Abu Dhabi to globally establish itself as a leading business centre.  Expansion of the airport will enable passenger traffic to shoot from the current 7 million to over 40 million per year. Cargo capacity will also be boosted to two million tons from the current 150,000 tons per year. (Ameifo.com, 2011). According to uaefz.com, multiple business ventures are being established ranging from logistics, aviation and aerospace, consultancy, business development, computing and information technology, electronics, express transport, medical equipment and pharmaceuticals. Various amenities have been put together under one roof and conveniently i ntegrated to provide the best services for investors (Jumeiraconsultants.com, 2011).   The free trade zone provides the locals with better goods at subsidized prices hence boosting the economy. The cheapness of goods is usually as a result of cheap production costs in addition to cheap imported labor. The UAE is freed of re-tasking its resources and instead focuses on its comparative advantages. ADAFZ and other free trade zones function as economic laboratories, which allow UAE governments, to learn what will be most beneficial to their economies over a long time (Ehow.com, 2011). Negative Contributions to the UAE Abu Dhabi Airport Free Zone may appear as an equal opportunity for everyone, but, these advantages come along with some disadvantages. The disadvantages extend for UAE is related to the technology level which means that the less industrialized emirates may suffer a disadvantage till they technologically develop. When Abu Dhabi opened its borders to the other emirates to be in the same free trade zone, it also invited fierce competition as well. This means that the whole of UAE competes with one another (Uaefz.com, 2011). The free trade area may also economically develop the area around the airport more than other regions in Abu Dhabi and UAE as a whole. This region may attract more foreign investors than other regions which may lead to economic underdevelopment of some other areas in the free trade zone. The underdevelopment may also impact the Abu Dhabi’s (Ehow.com, 2011). The issue of opening of borders brings the challenge of corporations seeking out for the lowest labor and environmental standards in order to minimize its production costs hence pressuring for low working standards. Furthermore, the transparency and absence of strict regulations of ADAFZ make it an attraction for illicit investors to launder crime proceeds and maybe finance terrorism (Fatf-gafi.org, 2011). Benefits to Investors According to Abu Dhabi (2011) an investor ha s to lease the facility in

Taylor's Main Principles of Scientific Management in Working Place Essay

Taylor's Main Principles of Scientific Management in Working Place - Essay Example Process are now clearly defined as well as how to do it that does not leave any room for intuitive job functioning. This is also to achieve uniformity and consistency in production and to make quality and output predictable. Scientific Management is an engineering approach to achieve efficiency in the workplace. Where the workplace or organization can be likened to a machine which is composed of several parts that should work together to achieve optimum efficiency. Principles of Scientific Management The first systematic attempt to address this conflict and labor recalcitrance in organization was directed by Frederick Winslow Taylor with his Scientific Management. For Taylor, the key to establishing an efficient and productive workplace required the possession and control of knowledge about the methods of production (Jaffe, 2008). Taylor's (1911) preface to the Principles of Scientific Management makes this quite clear when he stresses for national efficiency... first, it is teleolog ical in its orientation to means: what is important is securing the desired consequences. Second, in Taylor's philosophy, actions can be judged only by their consequences: a dogged empiricism is allied to an unquestioned grasp of the ends to be served. Third, ends are defined in terms of efficiency (primarily for factory owners) but are represented as the common good (Taylor, 1911). In pursuit of optimum efficiency, this Scientific Management engendered the idea of defining and breaking down of functions in narrowly defined tasks. Organization is viewed like a well-oiled machine where its parts, including labor would conform to the predetermined methods already in place. It proposed an engineering solution to a human issue with the objective of minimizing friction brought by human factor that the results of production may be predictable. According to Frederick Taylor, "Scientific Management is a distinctively scientific, since it aims to correlate in factory administration, and to p ush development further in accordance with the principles discovered (Taylor, 1911). According to Taylor (1911), the key features of scientific management are as follows: time study, functional or divided foremanship, the standardization of all tools and implements used in trades, the standardization of the acts and movements of workmen in each class of work, a unique planning function, management by the exception method, the use of slide-rules and other similar timesaving methods, instruction cards for workers, careful task Performance Improvement allocation, bonuses for successful performance, the use of a â€Å"differential rate,† a routing system, and mnemonic systems for classifying products and modern cost systems. The underlying principles of the philosophy are as follows: (a) the development of a true science for each element of a job, (b) the scientific selection and training of the worker, (c) cooperation with the worker to ensure that the job is being done in accor dance with principles of scientific education, and (e) an almost equal division of work and responsibility between workers and management (Wagner, 2007). Section 2. Case: Harvey Fast Food Restaurant I. Shift the decision making responsibility from the workers to managers   Decision making responsibility can be shifted to the managers from the workers when functions are broken down into specific tasks where it can be quantified for the managers to determine objective productivity output. In this way, the determination

Human Resources in healthcare administration Case Study

Human Resources in healthcare administration - Case Study Example As the director of the department of radiology, I will treat the ultimatum issued by Arthur with urgency and care. Specifically, I will engage him and his colleagues in negotiations to allow for more time to address the staffing shortage. I will explain to him the challenges faced by the department in hiring the technologists, and strategies in place to address the problem. Furthermore, I will involve all the relevant persons, including the department’s employees, in seeking solutions to the problem. The demands raised by Arthur are justified and legitimate. Ignoring the ultimatum will lead to a further shortage and hence the department will be in a crisis, and this will significantly affect the operations of the hospital. Since he is the senior technologist, ignoring the ultimatum and allowing him to leave may result in the departure of the other two technologists. The major issue in the case is the inability of the hospital to hire and retain technologists for special procedures. This has put enormous pressure on the existing workforce, and this is causing discomfort among them. This presents a significant problem because the current staff is unable to cope with the heavy workload, and the current staff members are willing to terminate their services. Unfortunately, the ultimatum has been issued by the senior technologist, who is the leader of the group. Should he leave, it is likely that the other two will leave as well. Given the difficulty in hiring these specialists, allowing the current members of staff leave will only make bad matters worse. Furthermore, promising the current staff that this shortage will be addressed soon is risky since it is not guaranteed that the problem will be addressed in time. Overall, the staffing challenge in this department makes it more difficult to retain the current workforce, and this puts the operations of the department and those of the entire

Book reflection Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Book reflection - Assignment Example Perhaps Thomas King is right because after all the stories of the Old Testament still profoundly interest and shape every new generation that is born, even though the actors who had once acted out these stories and even the stage are all gone. Thus, the stories of the Native Americans continue to instil a sense of the Native American identity and culture in these people, even though, ironically, King knows that very few people know how their lives hinge on them knowing about a story. It is the stories of the past that cause the Native Americans to maintain a firm base in places, even though with the intermingling of nations and the passage of time, those who had maintained roots in a place are there no longer. Thus, even today, a Cherokee from Oklahoma maintains a longing for the Alberta prairies, which were according to the stories, the home of the Cherokee and the border between the United States of America and Canada remains somehow artificial (King, 2003). King writes, â€Å"the border doesn’t mean that much to Native people in either country. It is, after all, the figment of someone else’s imagination†, despite the fact that the two colonial states on either side of the border completely changed the lives of the Native Americans and the border today is extremely significant. The word â€Å"we† in the statement â€Å"The truth about stories is that that’s all we are† presents strong intra-cultural and cross-cultural connections, because perhaps the stories of the Native Americans also have some meanings for others who came from afar to live in the new land with their own stories. Thomas King writes â€Å"What‘s important are the stories I‘ve heard along the way. And the stories I‘ve told. Stories we make up to try to set the world straight† (King, 2003). Only if somehow the stories belonging to every nation were to teach more tolerance and

Cabinet Lock Controller Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cabinet Lock Controller - Assignment Example For all that are not very conversant with whatever solution that is designed, just as the managing director who comes from a mechanical engineering background and so does not fully understand the diverese differences between the differing standards and the , real-time and strewn operating systems platform that is applied here. For puposes of these sort of people, it is hence therefore vital to elaborate give a short explanation of the specification and proper explanations of the source codes that are give an explantion of the working of the digital lock cabinet (Breitenstein & Langenkamp 2003). It has a project has been kept simple and within the constraints of efficient coding to avoid the possibility of mixing too many issues that would lead to hacking. The ideal thing that the cabinet lock would stand in prevention of is a Brute Force attack. This is the reason that this sort of solution on developed to come up with an efficient digital lock for a cabinet is that there has to be effective permutations that will make it almost impossible for an attacker. The basic cabinet lock that has been made for the company uses a set of five Digits and a further Master Lock that uses another set of 10 digits. This makes it very hard, mathematically, for any user to crack the codes. The intruders that are trying to break into the system find that they just have to have the simple pass code for them to gain access to the cabinet. The way the program has been designed to run is that, there has to be a cycle using two buttons that will come up with the codes (out of the 16 codes that ar e available), the third button will select the code from these 16 codes and a trigger will be sent and the authorization will be allowed (Al-Araji et al., 2006). The input of these codes that give the user with whatever login credentials and from any authentication levels that would be applicable per se will be captured by a keypad (a 4x3 Keypad) The

A Critique of the Site StarFall.com Design and Content Research Paper

A Critique of the Site StarFall.com Design and Content - Research Paper Example Parents find Starfall useful as it prepares their children for school, and supports them even after they join the school. The content of the website focuses on that method of learning that emphasizes the relationship between letter and sound, skills for recognizing words, and strategies for reading and comprehension. It does this with the help of activities like animated stories, movies and games. The site consists of four major units.The "Get Ready to Read" section is about the alphabet and the alphabets are pronounced in a child’s voice. The "Learn to Read" section which is for early readers and for those who are just beginning to read has fifteen different modules consisting of games, stories and movies that teach the child various letter sounds and skills. The third section, "Its Fun to Read,† designed for intermediate readers consist of activities related to art and music. The last section, â€Å"I’m Reading† is for advanced readers and has online storybooks that include well-known folktales and myths. The website also has an active bulletin board that can be used for dis cussion by parents. When students complete a program they can obtain a feedback of their performance and also give a feedback. The reading level of the text and stories is according to the grade levels it was designed for. The content of Starfall.com helps the learner to go beyond basics into a higher level of thinking. It enhances a student’s curiosity Starfall.com is well designed and the animation used compliments and enhances the process of learning. Starfall.com uses a variety of media that includes texts, graphics, video and audio narration. The main aim of a web profile is that it must be most attractive, says Stephanie Ruth (2009). In Starfall.com the colorful graphics and easy-to-read text make it attractive for children. Cartoon characters are also used in interactive stories and activities. The graphics on this website are appropriate to the goals of this program.

London Metropolitan Police Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

London Metropolitan Police - Essay Example Since then, many police agencies with the same mission continued to develop in the United Kingdom. Organization of the London Metropolitan Police The London police force members were known as Bobbies led by two magistrates who later acquired the titles of commissioners. Bobbies underwent many challenges including corruption emanating from the influence of wealthy men - a vice that contributed to the failure in combating crime. As a result, the metropolitan police administrators worked so hard to overcome the Bobbies’ misdeeds which led to loss of jobs for the corrupt Bobbies. The administrators were then authorized to form domestic police forces by another act of parliament that made every district and county in England to form its own police force (Siegel, 1994) Sir Robert operated on several principles which should guide the police force in their work. First, the mission was to end crime and disorder as a relief to the criminals that underwent extensive punishment; same for the legal authorities and military police. The police were required to attend to their duties as expected by the public as well as respect them. In maintaining respect, the police were required to cooperate with the public in abiding by the law. ... To actualize the slogan that the police are the public and the public are the police, the police were urged to maintain good relations with the public at all times. The police were not allowed to abuse powers of the judiciary by committing extra judicial crimes such as judging the accused in an authoritative manner. The police were recommended on the basis of reduced or no cases of crime and disorder in the society and how they generally dealt with crime (Kasper, 2010). Later, the most significant law enforcers known as sheriffs were established. They were involved in peacekeeping activities, collecting taxes, overseeing elections and dealing with other legal businesses in the country. Today, the Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) is charged with the responsibility of organizing and dealing with counter terrorism matters as well as protecting the British Loyal Family and senior figures of Her Majesty’s Government. The MPS is headed by the Commissioner of Police of the metropoli s, known as the Commissioner which is divided into numerous Borough Operational Command Units .The police areas are headed by the metropolitan district (MPD). The MPS is headed by the Commander, Deputy Assistant Commissioner, Assistant Commissioner, Deputy Commissioner and Commissioner in order of ranking. The body is also organized into territorial policing, specialist crime directorate, specialist operations, central operations, administration, and support, each headed by An Assistant Commissioner to perform different functions (Loftins,1982). Entry Requirements Key to the performance of the police include: law and order enforcement, prevention of crime and provision of safety to the public. This goal is unachievable if the relationship between the police and

The filament bulb obeys ohms law Essay Example for Free

The filament bulb obeys ohms law Essay I think this was caused by air already in the tube being pushed out. To overcome this I could have measured how much O2 started in the tube and then subtracted that from my 1st measurement. My experiment was good because it was repeated enough times, three times, so that any anomalous results could be clearly seen next to a best-fit curve. Also all of my results had a best-fit curve and the values increased throughout, backing up my prediction that as the substrate concentration increased so would the initial rate of reaction. Using a measuring cylinder rather than a gas syringe to collect the O2 is better because gas syringes, although easier to use, do not always move with ease when oxygen moves in. In my experiment the oxygen bubbles could be clearly seen in the water inside the measuring cylinder and had no trouble reaching the cylinder. Limitation How does this affect accuracy and/or reliability? Importance? Why? Modifications O2 escaping due to tubes in bung. If O2 escaped then the volume of O2 collected will be wrong and therefore the result could not be reliable. This is very important as if gas was escaping then it would not have got into the tube, therefore affecting the amount of O2 collected in the experiment. However, as the same equipment was used throughout this is not a very important factor as it would have been the same for all of the experiments. Use Vaseline around tubes to stop O2 escaping and look for any gas escaping through holes in the tube that is in the water. This would stop O2 escaping but wouldnt really alter the reliability too much, just the accuracy of the result. Surface area of yeast not being similar. This is a variable and therefore not keeping it the same means two things are being investigated at the same time, and therefore this would mean that the results gathered do have some inaccuracies and can not be reliable. This is the most important factor because a larger surface area means that there will be more to react with. If there were a very small surface area the reaction would be slow, as there is not much for the substrate to react with. By crushing the yeast up with a pestle and mortar the surface areas will all be the same but this would speed up the reactions dramatically as it would give the maximum surface area. This would have made the results a lot more reliable as they all would have begun with the same surface area. Test tube containing O2 before H2O2 was added. This means that the first measurement could be quite high, when there is little activity, as solution being pushed in it pushes oxygen out through the tube. This is important as it explains the 1st result being much faster than the 2nd throughout the 5 experiments. However, it is the same for all of the experiments so it wouldnt make a big difference in the comparison of my results. Making a vacuum around the experiment would stop O2 getting into the tube. An easier alternative would be to measure O2 in tube before and then subtract that number from my 1st measurement. Although this would increase accuracy it would not alter the reliability, as the amount of O2 in the tube is the same each time. Obstruction in the tube This would slow or stop the movement of O2 through to the measuring cylinder. If there was a block then it would cause the results to be much lower than they should be, with a much slower initial rate of reaction. This is because less O2 is being measured as less would get to the measuring cylinder. By rinsing out the tube before each experiment any obstructions can be removed. If there were an obstruction then doing this would make the results more reliable and much more accurate. The results that I gathered, in my opinion, are not all reliable. This is mainly due to the wide range of results gathered in my 5ml H2O2, the final measurements being 45cm3, 93cm3 and 92cm3. Also, my 2ml H2O2 experiment ended up with a higher initial rate of reaction and more O2 collected than the 3ml H2O2 and the 4ml H2O2 experiments. Repeating the experiment 3 times and then taking an average helps to hide these unreliable results. Another reason why my results are unreliable is that the surface area was not the same each time. If the yeast in one experiment had a much higher surface area then it was going to have a much faster initial rate of reaction than an experiment where yeast had a small surface area. This is likely to be why my 2ml H2O2 experiment came out higher than my 3ml and 4ml H2O2 experiments On my graphs I have circled what I think are anomalous results. My first anomalies occur on my 2ml H2O2 graph. Between 40seconds and 60seconds the O2 collected is 14. 3cm3, 17. 7cm3 and 21. 7cm3. I think that, although the graph on the whole is unreliable, these are anomalous because they do not fit the best-fit curve. On the 3ml H2O2 graphs I have circled two points as these points dip below the best fit curve and then back up again. At 70seconds and 80seconds the O2 collected is 20. 7cm3 and 22. 7cm3. A possible reason for this could have been that the tube might have been blocked, maybe by the way that the measuring cylinder was held. It might have been different if the measuring cylinder was clamped so it couldnt move and therefore couldnt squash the tube. By holding the measuring cylinder it was possible that it may have been pressed down on the tube briefly. This would of held the O2 in the tube and then when it was released the O2 would have all come out at once, resulting in the points moving back to the best-fit line. On the 5ml H2O2 graph I have circled one point. This point is after 30seconds and misses the best-fit curve by about 4cm3; it has 30cm3 whereas the curve crosses 30seconds at 34cm3. The reason for this anomaly could have been the same as above or possible because of a reading inaccuracy. Also, when holding the measuring cylinder, it was not always held perfectly upright, and therefore could have given a false reading but this is likely to have been the same throughout the experiment. Bibliography These are the books from which I gathered my information and used to make my prediction: Indge, Rowland, Baker, (2000): A New Introduction to Biology (Hodder Stroughton) Jones, Forsbery and Taylor (2000): Biology 1 (Cambridge University Press) Toole, Glenn and Susan (1999): Understanding Biology, Fourth Edition: (Stanley Thorne Ltd).

Glycolipids: Function and Structure

Glycolipids: Function and Structure Introduction Marine fungi are saprophytic or heterotrophic form of filamentous spore forming eukaryote microorganisms are extensively lives in the marine or estuarine ecosystem. The characterization and diversity of the marine fungi can be studied by the direct observation of morphological structure and next generation sequencing. Taxonomically characterized marine fungi are belongs to either facultative or obligate forms. Facultative forms are originally sourced from terrestrial or fresh water region but they are able to colonize and adopt with the marine habitat and the obligate are extensively live in marine ecosystem (Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer, 1979). The fungi are extensively reported for the several biotechnological applications industrial utilization in enzymes, natural products and agriculture biocontrol etc. The marine fungus are taxonomically distinct (Jones et al., 2009), saline tolerant (Jennings, 1986), special biochemical properties (Damare et al., 2006). Interestingly, the marine fungi have the novelty than the obligate fungi and attracts in applications of omics (Damare et al., 2012). Generally, marine fungi can be isolated from the nutrient rich substrata such as decaying wood (harbour), coral reef (Le Campion- Alsumard et al., 1995), seagrases (Thirunavkkarasu, 2011) and mangrove ecosystem (Saravanakumar et al., 2012) and deep sea soil (Damare, 2007) are enhance distinct diversity of the obligate fungi (Sridhar, 2005). Among the marine substrate, mangrove is an second largest source for the isolation of obligate marine fungi (Ragukumar 2004). However, the biotechnological application of marine fungi differs with the terrestrial fungi due to their environmental adaptations and distributions. Many research focus on biotechnological utilization of natural products, enzymes, biocont rol, bioremediation, fuel conservation, waste management by using the marine fungi. A lot of structurally and pharmaceutically novel metabolites, isolated from marine fungi. However, this article focuses the glycollipids from the marine fungi and their properties, biological functions and applications. Glycolipids are a structurally very heterogenous group of membrane bound compound present in all living prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisams to human cells. The term of â€Å"glycolipid† is a compound contains one or more monosaccharides glycodidically linked in to a lipid (Brandenburg and Holst, 2005). Glycolipids are an essential constituent of cellular membrane and have the remarkable biological functions of cell aggregation or dissociation act as receptor of accepter to provide the contact. Several glycolipids has important role in immune system. Fungal glycolipidomics The glycolipids are interesting group of the compound occurred in cell wall of animals, microbes and plant sources (Pinto et al., 2008). The fungal glycolipids are composed of a sugar units usually glucose and galatose, hydrophobic ceramides, C19 sphingoid, C-9 metyl braches and unsaturated linkages with hydroxyhexadecanoic acids (Pinto et al., 2008). Glycoconjugates in fugal cell wall Glycoconjugates are composed of glycoprotins, peptides, glucons, polysaccharides, phosphoric acid, phospholipids, nitrogen and glycolipid molecules and found in the cell wall. Among the defining characteristics of fungal is cell wall complex architecture. Fungal cell walls are substantially thicker than bacterial cell walls and normally make up 10-30% of the biomass. They are freely permissible to small molecules and solute transport system and signalling receptors remains in cell membrane. A different cell wall found in the fungi comparing to animals and the role of these walls includes osmotic support, selective permeability and interaction with environment (Conzalexz et al., 2009). Fungal walls consist of covalently cross linked polysaccharides of ÃŽ ²-glycans and Chitin and several polysaccharides are covalently cross linked through glycosidic bonds (Pinto et al., 2008). Fungal glycolipids exterior Generally, the glycolipid molecules are found in cell membrane of all eukaryotic cell membranes, are contain the sugar called as glycolipids besides biologically produced biosurfactants are called as glycolipids. However, all type of glycolipids are biosurfactants but not all the biosurfactants are glycolipids (Mukherjee et al., 2006; Khopade et al., 2012). Simplest glycolipids contain the one or more sugars (Fig.) and complex glycolipids such as gangliosides contain a branch chain with several sugars. Cell membranes of the fungi have the many types membrane and are assembled from four compounds such as (i) phospholipids molecules, (ii) transmembrane proteins, (iii) inerter protein network, and (iv) cell surface markers are not identical. The glycolipids are formed in the cell wall of fungi by glycosylation in endoplasimic reticulam (ER) membrane sections and transfer the Golgi complex followed by plasma membrane (Fig). These add the sugar molecules chain to lipids called the sugar c oating lipids that extents the outside of fungal cells and differences were identified in glycolipids among fungal species and used as cell surface layer or marker besides glycolipids are also compound of the fatty acids contain carbohydrates, and nitrogen not phosphoric acids includes the certain compounds of the gangliosides, sulfolipids and salfatids (Pinto et al., 2008). The glycolipids are a marker for the cell identification of cell surface changes and are serving as fundamental building blocks of fungi, energy molecule or store, component of membrane constituents, signal molecule to interact the environmental compounds in through outer matrix, lectins, growth factor, and a potential factor of pathogenesis and immune responses (Hakomori, 1990; Springer and Lasky, 1991; Pinto et al., 2008). Moreover, the detail mechanism of role and properties of the glycolipids in fungus remain unclear. Marine fungal glycolipids Research on glycolipids from the marine resources has expanded the due attention due to its potential novelty in biotechnological applications. Muralidhar et al., (2003) have been reviewed the glycolipids from the marine resources such as algae (Lo et al., 2001), microorganisms: bacteria (Batrakov et al., 1998), fungi (Abraham et al., 1994), yeasts (Zinjarde and pant, 2002), actionbacteria (Kokare et al., 2007), sponges (pettit et al., 1999), gorgonians (Shin and Seo, 1995), sea anemones (Sugita et al., 1994), bryozoans (Ojika et al., 1997), tunicates (Loukaci et al., 2000), marine annelid (Noda et al., 1992), star fish (Sugiyama et al., 1988), sea cucumber (Higuchi et al., 1994), sea urchin (Babu et al., 1997) crinoids (Arao et al., 1999), molluscs (Yamaguchi et al., 1992), and marine crab (Asai et al., 2000). In terrestrial Fungus, in general yeasts have glycolipids as major constituents and are not the major compound in more fungal species. However, a high Glycolipids content of 11-16% of total lipids in Blastocladiella emersonii, the major compound of glycollipid is GalDAG and Gal2DAG (Mills and Cantino, 1974). The 61- 48 % of glycolipids is found in mycelia of Macrophomina phaseoline and the lower in the sclerotia (14-62%). However the glycolipids concentrations varied according the constituents of fermentation medium. The major compound of the fungal glycolipids identified as GalDAG and Gal2DAG based structural characterization. Further the major glycolipids of fungi is glycosphingolipids and D- glucosylceramides (Weete, 1980). Galactocerebrosides has been found in fungal species, of Aspergillus miger, C.utilis and S. cerevisae (Wagner and Zofcsik, 1969). Besides the fungal species Fusarium lini, Phycomycetes blakesleeanus and mushrooms are known to produce the glycolipids (Weiss et a l., 1973). Subsequently, the glycolipids are widely studied from Torulaspora delbruecki , Saccharomyes cerevisae, Candida glabrata, Kluyveromyes yarrowii, F. pedrosoi and K. polyporus (Saito et al., 2006 ; Pinto et al., 2008). The long chain sphingadinene has been first reported from Aspergillus oryzae (Fujino and Ohishi, 1976) and subsequently from Schizophyllum commune (Ballio et al., 1979), Fusicoccum amygdale (Ballio et al., 1979)), Clitocybe geotrope and Aspergillus fumigatus (Villas Boss et al., 1994), C. nebularis (Fodegel et al., 1986), A. niger(levery et al., 2000), A. versicolor (Walenkamp et al., 1999), Candida albicans (Matsubara et al., 1987), Acremonium chrysogenum (Sakaki et al., 2001), Cryptococcus neoformans (Rodrigues et al., 2000), Colletotrichum gloeosporioides ( de Silva et al., 2004), Fonsecaea pedrosoi (Nimrichter et al., 2005), Hansenula anomala (Ng et al., 1977), Fusarium sp. (Duarte et al., 1998), Histoplasma capulatum (Toledo et al., 2001), Kluyeromyces wa ltii (Takakuwa et al., 2002), paracoccidioides brasiliensis (Takahahi et al., 1996), Magnaporthe grisea (Koga et al., 2006), Pichia pastoris (Sakaki et al., 2001), Saccharomyces klyuyveri (Takakuwa et al., 2002), Pseudallescheria boydii (Pinto et al., 2002), Termitomyces albuminosus (Qi et al., 2002) Sporothrix schenkii (Toledo et al., 2001). In marine fungi, very few studies are available on glycolipids of marine fungi (Table.1); the marine white rot marine fungi Nia vibrissae is producer of glycolipids with inhibitory activity, the binding of endotoxin Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to human endotoxin receptor (Helmholz et al., 1999). Marine fungi Gliocladium roseum KF-1040 is a producer of Roselipins can inhibit the enzyme diacylglycerol acyl transferase (Omura et al., 1999; Tomada et al., 1999; Tabata et al., 1999). Glycolipids derived from marine yeasts Calyptogena soyoae, Yarrowia lipolytica are effective on degradation of hydrocarbon (Zinjarde and pant, 2002; Konishi et al., 2010). Glycolipids synthesised form filamentous endosymbiotic Aspergillus ustus has the significant antimicrobial activity (Kiran et al., 2009). Several marine fungus such as Penicillum sp. F23-2 (Sun et al., 2009), Linincola laevis (Abraham et al., 1994), Fusarium sp (Li et al., 2002) and Microsphaeropsis olivacea (Keugen et al., 1996) are significa ntly produced the glycolipids with unknown application.

Essay --

Sigmund Freud is psychology’s most famous figure. He is also the most controversial and influential thinkers of the twentieth century. Freud’s work and theories helped to shape out views of childhood, memory, personality, sexuality, and therapy. Time Magazine referred to him as one of the most important thinkers of the last century. While his theories have been the subject of debate and controversy, his impact on culture, psychology, and therapy is cannot be denied. Freud was born in May 6, 1856 in the Czech Republic. He attended Spurling Gymnasium. At Spurling, he was first in his class and graduated Summa Cum Laude. After studying medicine at the University of Vienna, he gained respect while working as a physician. Freud and a friend were introduced to a case study that resulted in no cause, but they found that having the patient talk about her experiences had a calming effect on the symptoms. That was considered to be the beginning of the study of psychology. Throughout Freud’s time, he came up with many different theories. One of his theories was Life and Death Instincts. This theory evolved throughout his life and work. He believed that these drives were responsible for much of behavior. He eventually came to believe that these life instincts alone couldn’t explain all human behavior. Freud then determined that all instincts fall into one of 2 major classes: the life instincts or the death instincts. Life instincts deal with basic survival, reproduction, and pleasure. Death instincts are apparent after people experience a traumatic event and they often reenact the experience. In Freud’s view, self-destructive behavior is an expression of the energy that is created by the death instincts. Another one of Freud’s theories ... ...a person’s repressed emotions and experiences. It’s commonly used to treat anxiety disorders and depression. (McLeod) Freud also created a number of different works during his lifetime. These works include The Interpretation of Dreams, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, Totem and Taboo, Civilization and Its Discontents, and The Future is an Illusion. His personal favorite was The Interpretation of Dreams because he said that it contains the most valuable of all the discoveries it had been his good fortune to make. (Cherry) Personally, I believe that Sigmund Freud was a very in depth person. His theories seem to be very accurate and well thought out. Being one of the first people to study this subject, I feel like he set a really good example to other psychologists. He is very interesting to learn about and there is so much more that I don’t even know about him.

Machinery Hall, Centennial Exposition 1876, Philadelphia Essays

Machinery Hall, Centennial Exposition 1876, Philadelphia The "International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and Mine, in the city of Philadelphia" was opened on the 10th day of May in the year 1876. As it was more commonly known, the "Centennial Exposition" was America's first successful World's Fair. The fair celebrated the one hundred year anniversary of the Declaration of Independence and America's start as a sovereign nation. It was at the Centennial Fair that Americans were given a chance to display their knowledge and power in the growing industrialized world. Long gone were the days of single-structure exhibitions. The Philadelphia organizers peppered Fairmont Park with exhibition buildings and attractions, giving visitors much to look at. At the fair the United States sought to establish itself among the major countries of the world. The major buildings of the fair: Memorial Hall, the Main Building, Machinery Hall, Horticultural Hall, the Women's Pavilion and several national and state pavilions provided a suitable architectural framework for the exhibited materials. The most popular of these buildings was Machinery Hall, built to house the country's technological wonders of the past century (Snyder). Machinery Hall, "four times the space of St. Peter's" in Rome (Bruce, 150) covered an area of 558,440 square feet (including its annex). Fairmont Park was at the time the "largest and finest urban park in America" (Mass, 16). After selecting the site for the fair, the Centennial Commission held a competition for the design of the exhibition buildings offering awards to the top ten entries. The first prize was given to Collins & Autenrieth of Philadelphia whose design estimated construction ... ...usiasts to see what it was like to visit the fair first hand. Though these images are not always completely historically correct, they serve as an excellent tool for learning about the fairs. Bibliography Bruce, Edward C. The Century: Its Fruits and its Festival. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1877. Maass, John. The glorious enterprise: the Centennial Exhibition of 1876 and H. J. Schwarzmann, architect-in-chief / John Maass. New York. American Life Foundation. 1973. Snyder, Iris. (February 2000) "The Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 1876" University of Delaware, Special Collections Department http://www.lib.udel.edu/ud/spec/exhibits/fairs/cent.htm(25 February, 2001). Trout, Silas E. The Story of the Centennial of 1876. Lancaster, 1929. ARCH SPCEXP T825.B1T7 Westcott, Thompson. A Centennial Portfolio. Philadelphia, T. Hunter, 1876.

Nicolo Pignatelli and Gulf Italia: Case Analysis Essay

1. Pignatelli should first and foremost properly assess the ethical dilemma he faces. The problem before him comes down to the decision between two outcomes both with their share of benefits and risks. He can follow guidelines by waiting several months to receive a response from the Italian government while losing millions of dollars and risking his reputation and fate of his company if the government decides to not allow Gulf Italia to refine at full capacity. On the other hand he can attempt to pay someone off either directly or indirectly, a potential illegal activity, and more quickly have his company produce at full capacity, preserving his reputation without losing money and securing the jobs of his many workers. Because this is an ethical dilemma, a straight forward decision is not possible and a careful consideration of the factors must be taken. No code of ethics is mentioned in the case description, so a measurement of the moral intensity factor will be more relevant. The magnitude of the consequences leans more in favor or Pignatelli paying someone off because the employment of thousands of his workers is as stake and because the risks are not as high as imagined. It is mentioned that this practice is common in Italy despite it being illegal. The social consensus also leans in favor of Pignatelli paying someone off because of the fate of his workers and also because he has gone to great lengths to satisfy the local communities already in moving the location around five times and implementing cleaner technology at a higher expense to his company. The probability of effect also leans in favor of paying someone off because it seems as if his company is not doing any harm but rather is being harmed by the limitations placed by the Italian government. Proximity also leans in favor of paying someone off because his reputation is at stake and he could very well lose everything if he decides to wait it out. For these reasons Pignatelli should either pay someone off or ask Mobil to put pressure on decision makers. Although the bribe option is illegal, that should be the last choice he makes after he tries paying someone connected to take care of it and having Mobil work on the problem as well. If I were in his position, I would do as I have just recommended, but only in the context of what his situation was. It seems as if Pignatelli was under intense pressure to lead his company, to ensure the livelihoods of his workers and to turn a profit. On top of this, it seems almost unfair that his company was promised one thing then given another. 2. If Pignatelli does not pay the bribes directly, it does not absolve him from responsibility because of accountability. If he did not need to have someone indirectly paid off in the first place for a specific reason, then no bribe of that matter would have ever taken place. If Pignatelli ended up paying someone to bribe someone else and the authorities found out, the chain would lead back to Pignatelli and he would most certainly be held accountable for the activity. 3.  The argument that asks if it is justifiable to illegally bribe someone because it is common practice has two sides. On one hand it is simply illegal, should not be done, and will be prosecuted if discovered. However on other side, one could ask the question, is a law really a law if it is not enforced and under what circumstances, if any, would it ever be okay to break that law? If someone is to consider the second stance, they would have to consider the moral and philosophical implications of what justice is. For the example of Pignatelli, if he is doing nothing morally wrong, in fact he is actually creating a commodity for the world to use while ensuring the livelihoods of many of his employees, is it justifiable for him to break the law to ensure that he can maintain his operation? The answer to this question depends on the viewer and what he or she personally believes and defines as justice. I personally believe that justice is a moral virtue which is delineated and refined through the judicial system, and that laws can change over time. I believe that bribing to get something unfairly in return is morally wrong, but I believe that in the case of Gulf Italia because the government already gave him the go ahead to refine oil, then suddenly cut it back, there is a tremendous desire to look more closely at the situation. If his company is more than qualified, and the government made an irrational decision, I believe that in this particular case, that a bribe to ensure the flow of so much else would be justifiable. 4.  Pignatelli does not necessarily have a responsibility to go above and beyond environmental requirements. This does not mean that he could actually go above and beyond. It all depends on his management style. If he believes in social responsibility, then he would go above and beyond. If he believes in efficiency, he would only do what is the bare minimum to pass the requirements. Whether it is appropriate or not for Gulf to spend extra money thereby taking it away from shareholders also depends on his management style. If he believes in social responsibility then he would see it in the sense that he owes something back to society because without it, his company would not exist, and therefore he would take money from his shareholders to enact policies towards social responsibility. However if he believes in efficiency, he would see his responsibility as an owner and manager to maximize profits to the other owners and shareholders because that is basically his job and that issues pertaining to social responsibility are better left the government. 5. Considering the context of the case, I would be perfectly fine.  If I were an Italian working for a huge Italian conglomerate, I would most typically think that one vice in exchange for much good is tolerable. Going back on my response to question 3, my ethical obligations in any other case of bribery would lead me to a moral dilemma. If I were working for a finance company and found out that my bonus was directly correlated to a senior partner bribing someone, I would most likely protest and revolt. However if I were a lower-middle class Italian laborer with a secure and promising job, I would not see it as a bad thing what the owner did which in a way he did to guarantee my pay and security.

Personality psychology Essay

Carl Gustav Jung was born on July 26, 1875 to a Swiss Pastor and his wife, in Kesswil, Switzerland. He was raised in Basel and attended school in Klein-Huningen. As a young boy Carl was fascinated by language, literature and archeology but was not really interested in school. He eventually enrolled and continued his education at the Humanistisches Gymnasium in Basel, and excelled at Latin. Because of his father’s faith, Jung developed a keen interest in religious history, but settled on the study of medicine at the University of Basel. He earned his medical degree in 1902 from the University of Zurich and went Paris to study psychology. Jung entered the field of psychiatry as an intern to Eugen Bleuler at the University of Zurich where he explored the unconscious mind and its related complexes. Jung was drafted into World War I and served as an army doctor for the British. In 1903, Jung married Emma Rauschenbach, with whom he had five children. Jung traveled throughout the world to teach and influence others with his psychoanalytical theories. He published many books relating to psychology, and others that seemed outside the realm science, including Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies, which examined and dissected the psychological significance of UFO sightings. Jung’s work embodied his belief that each person has a life purpose that is based in their spiritual self. Through his eastern, western and mythological studies, Jung developed a theory of transformation which he called individuation. He explained individualism as being the personal development of one’s connection between the ego and self, which was based on Freud’s three part theory of personality. He further pursued and explored the idea of individuation in Psychology and Alchemy, a book in which he detailed the relationship of alchemies in the psychoanalytical process. Jung developed the idea of introversion and extroversion type of personality. He outlined the theory of the four fundamental psychological functions of thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition. His most difficult concept deals with archetypes which are inherited predispositions to respond to the world in a certain way. Jung’s relationship with Sigmund Freud began with his Studies in Word Association, a book that he published in 1906 and sent to Freud. In 1907 Jung met with Freud and their first discussions lasted 13 hours. In 1909 Jung opened his own practice and travelled to the United States with Freud. Their friendship lasted until 1913, at which time they parted ways due to a difference in academic opinion. Jung somewhat agreed with Freud’s theory of the unconscious, but believed further in the existence of a much deeper collective unconscious and representative archetypes. He disagreed with the idea that the unconscious is motivated by sexuality. This fundamental difference caused their friendship and professional opinions to be in conflict. Carl Jung is recognized as one of the most influential psychiatrists of all time. He founded Analytical Psychology and was among the first experts in his field to explore the religious nature behind human psychology. He developed the concept of the complex and identified the parallel roles of extraversion and introversion. He deepened the meaning of the unconscious by stating the existence of the collective unconscious and all of its archetypes. Additionally, the founders of Alcoholics Anonymous were in part inspired by Jung’s belief in an evangelic cure for alcoholism. His works, theories, and schools of thought are still widely discussed in universities and psychology curriculums around the world.

Cuban Missile Crisis and Cold War Assignment Essay

During the 1960’s, one of the most thing that the American government and the American people had to face was the Cold War. People who grew up during the 1950’s, 60’s, and 70’s would have talked about the war like it was an everyday thing. But, as the years and decades have gone by people have might have a different option and some might not even know or remember what it was. Interviewing 3 people will show what the average citizen knows or remembers about the Cold War. During the interviews, I asked 3 questions that would help me find this answer. They included, what words or phrases come to mind when you think of the term Cold War? Did you ever study the Cold War in school? If so, what are some aspects of the Cold War that you remember? Who were the parties involved in the Cold War? Can you name any key events that we mainly associate with the Cold War? The first person that was interviewed said the first word that came to mind when asked about the Cold War was the Cuban missile crisis. This person did study the Cold War in school and remembered that the United States was trying to keep most of the things discrete when it came to the political side of the war. The parties involved according to this person were the United States and the Soviet Union. Some of the key events that were associated were of course the Cuban Missile Crisis, the dealership of arms at the time, and the nuclear weapons involved. This person remembered a key point in the Cold War but, did not remember in detail what was taught in school. The second person that was interviewed stated the key things that came to mind about the Cold War, was the Soviet Union. They also mentioned that the Soviet Union had fallen after the Cold War. This person has also studied the Cold War in school and remembered that it lasted a long time and was after WWII. This person said the parties that were involved were the Soviet Union and the United States. The key elements that most people would relate to the Cold War were the length of the war and that it cost the United States so much money. They stated that the war was over a 4 decade period and said it cost upward to 8 trillion dollars and countless numbers of lives lost. This person knew about the cold war but only remembers a little of what was taught from school. The final person that was interviewed, stated that the first thing that came to mind when asked about the Cold War was the war was based the state of military rivalry and political tensions. The war consisted of the United States government and the government of the Soviet Union. The United States lost many lives in the hundreds throughout the long drawn out war. The person stated that they did study the Cold War in school and can remember how controversial it was for the American people and also with the government. The individual stated that the two parties they can think have been the United States and the Soviet Union. Finally, a key element of the war that was known across the United States was that the war had the complications of nuclear weapons and the countries trying to become a leader in arms dealing. Basically, see who had the most weapons and the more military firepower and power overall. This person had more knowledge as far as the understanding and remembrance of the Cold War. After conducting the interviews about the Cold War, there are some similarities to what the people who were interviewed had said. The definition of the Cold War was similar to the one given at the beginning of the assignment. All of the definitions of what the cold war was about and what were the key elements have to do with the political issues and the issues of the American people. This shows that people were divided in deciding if the Cold War was the right way to go. There was a lot of tension and cautiousness about the topic of the Cold War.

Study Guide on Communication

1. What is communication? How does communicating relate to parenting? Communication is sharing of meaning between two or more people, it relates to parenting because it helps guide and understand their child better. 2. How can financial issues affect parenting? Financial issues may cause families to spend less time together; children may spend more time be unsupervised and less quality time with their parents. 3. How does negative communication differ from positive communication? Positive parenting differ from negative parenting because positive parenting have to deal with guiding and teaching children and negative have to deal with yelling scream and punishment. 4. How can divorce affect children? Divorce affects children differently depending on the age group under five experience increased temper tantrums, difficulty sleeping, separation anxiety. School children may feel sadness, guilt, anger and develop phobias. Teens experience insecurity, sadness, and engage in drug use, criminal activities, unsafe sex, etc. . What are three tips that parents can use to improve communication with their children? Three communication tips are; 1) Make the child the focus of your attention. 2) Get down to the child's level physically (eye contact). 3) Delay or Pause conversation if you need to. Critical Thinking Questions 1. Why is it important that parents talk to their children about social issues such as divorce, finances, and unemployment? How can parents talk about di fficult topics? It is important because children can understand the problems that their family is having. They can sit down and talk to their child in a calm tone without giving negative contact. 2. When teenagers become parents, what are some of the challenges they face? Teens faces challenges such as depression, stress, fitting in with their peers and anxiety. 3. What are at least three techniques that parents can use when they are communicating with a child about a mistake or misbehavior? Three techniques parent can use are 1) Wait before criticizing out of anger. ) Start a constructive criticism conversation on a positive note. 3) Don’t jump to conclusion first get full story. Discussion Question 1. Who is someone that you feel you have a positive relationship with? What role do you think openness and truthfulness have in making this relationship positive? Someone who I have a positive relationship with is my aunt. I think openness and truthfulness play a big role because if it wasn’t for those I wouldn’t be able to have a positive good relationship with her. 2. What effects do you think the various types of media (TV, Internet, newspapers, Facebook, etc†¦) have on your own life and your family? Do you think the overall effect is negative or positive? How can parents reduce the negative effects? I think media have a negative effect on my life because I spend more time with the media than I do with my family and that’s not good. We are starting to be a little distant and not spend quality time with each other. I think my parents can spend less time with media stuff and more time with us.

Claudio’s fall from grace in Much Ado About Nothing Essay

It is often said that Shakespeare meant Claudio to be the hero of the play as the climax of the play (the court scene) revolves around his love story and he finally achieves his beloved in the denouement. However, as the play progresses Claudio fails to live up to the expectation of being a hero and is barely tolerable through the course of the play. Claudio is a young Florentine and serves as Don Pedro’s right hand man. The very first impression that the audience gets of him is very deceptive just as the rest of the play is. He is said to have achieved ‘the feats of a lion in the figure of a lamb’. As the exposition scene progresses, Claudio reveals his feelings regarding Hero to Don Pedro. However, this impacts Claudio’s image negatively as he allows Don Pedro to woo Hero in his place. His manliness is put to question as he is not even brave enough to declare love to the person he loves. ‘The prince woos in Claudio’s name’ and discloses Claudio’s feelings to Leonato. In the meanwhile, Claudio acting like a fool is deceived by Don John into believing that Don Pedro has wooed for himself. Claudio appears to be a gullible character as he is deceived by the very devil into mistrusting his dearest friend. He is a brave person and a likeable man but his exasperating credulity takes the merits from all these qualities away and leaves Claudio hinging between a smart and a petty character. Though foolish and naà ¯ve in judgement, Claudio is still loved and trusted by his friends. Claudio plays a crucial role in the gull of Benedick as he becomes the via media of information from Hero about Beatrice’s love for Benedick. His presence in the scene makes it more believable and thus Claudio becomes an important character in the development of the plot in the story. The play progresses and Borachio and Don John approach Don Pedro and Claudio to carry out their master plan. On hearing, what Don John has to say, Claudio reacts impulsively without giving the situation a second thought. He believes in what Don John is saying and aggressively declares ‘If I see anything tonight why I should not marry her, tomorrow, in the congregation where I should wed, there will I shame her. Claudio’s gullibility is again showcased as he believes Don John that the person he loves is disloyal Moreover this is the person who’s compared to Diana for her virtues and Claudio readily believes her to be disloyal because the villain says so. It is in Act 4 scene 1 that all hell breaks loose and Claudio loses all respect in the eyes of the audience. Claudio openly slanders Hero. He appears to be a petty man who is only capable of judging people superficially and incapable of reacting in a calm and mature manner. He mirrors a typical Elizabethan man who is very misogynistic in his attitude. Shakespeare critics the chivalric notion of honour through Claudio and shows the co-existence of the two paradoxical notions of chivalry and misogyny. Claudio’s self-deception of being righteous and his lack of true judgement leaves the audience disgusted at him after the court scene. This feeling of disgust is heightened as Claudio fails to show any signs of guilt in his behaviour and looks for entertainment from Benedick. Even when he is informed of Hero’s death by Leonato, he doesn’t even show an iota of remorse. However, when the truth comes to light, he agrees upon repenting for his mistakes. So far so that, he doesn’t even protest taking Antoni’s daughter’s hand in marriage. This reflect upon his superficial love and how he never felt any love but was simply attracted towards Hero. His behaviour again undergoes a complete volte-face as he discovers that Hero is not dead and instantly falls in love with her again. These incidents lead us to believe that Claudio is a loosely basted character who’s behaviour is everchanging and is easily gullible and extremely impulsive in nature. Shakespeare gives to Claudio the affluence of vitality, which necessarily creates an extenuating perspective for his conduct. This makes the worst of his aberrations tolerable and thus slightly likeable. Also, Claudio’s presence in the play gives us a contrast between courtly love and true, deep-rooted love. His fall from grace gives a contrast to Benedick’s character as Benedick continuously grows from being a bit of a nonsensical character as to being a man of morals and solidarity. It is Claudio’s fall from grace and Benedick’s rise to manliness that bring about the main developments in the plot during the course of the play.

Privacy and Security in E-Commerce Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Privacy and Security in E-Commerce - Assignment Example An overly secure environment looks into the security of the transaction by creating passwords and logins in order to ensure privacy and confidentiality of the details of the transactions. In cases where e-commerce involves financial transactions, the risk of loss of money becomes high hence making security issues key to e-commerce. However, both open and overly secure environments have both advantages and disadvantages. There are various advantages of conducting business in open environments. First, users will not require login and passwords in order to navigate on the websites. Paying for items or making orders will not require one to give login for identification purposes. This makes the process easy and faster compared to a secure environment where login is required. The graphical user interface of open environments is simpler and easy to use hence cause customer satisfaction and convenience (Becker, 2008). Cost advantage also arises in an open environment. There is no cost involv ed in developing a secure environment thereby reducing the need to engage experts in developing the site. The costs of hosting such a website are also lower compared to that of an over security environment which requires shrewd experts to develop. However, the cost may arise where customers sue the business for protection purposes. On the other hand, browsing in an insecure open environment is characterized by various drawbacks. To begin with, the computers can be hacked thus infringing on private information. This may make the future transactions insecure and further cause loss of resources. Moreover, it would be easier to get computer virus attacks, which could stall operations and further cause loss of data that may be expensive to acquire. In addition, a company can be faced with innumerable cases from customers for violation of privacy. Because of the multiple suits, the company risks spending colossal amounts in compensating the customers. In instances that the transactions in volve payment of money or transfers of money, open environments are inappropriate because unauthorized third parties might access the customers’ private information. There are cases in which customers have been defrauded money hence causing panic and financial losses to the parties. If this happens, the customers’ confidence and trust are lost hence making open environments riskier and disadvantageous. Similar to an open environment, an overly secure environment also has several advantages and drawbacks. On the side of the advantages, overly secure environment makes customers feel secure therefore promoting online sales. The high number of sales increases the revenues and reduces transaction cost associated with physical transactions. The businesses in ensuring security further achieve their fiduciary obligations of making their customers secure and hence get shielded from legal cases that may arise. A feeling of security encourages repeat purchases. Secondly, overly s ecure environment ensures that the business information is protected from hackers and crackers. When online purchases are made in an open environment, the business equipment and information will remain confidential from being stolen.  

Introduction to Microeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Introduction to Microeconomics - Essay Example pply in positively related to price because at a higher price producers can earn more profit by supplying more output.(Ian Hobday, p 100,105) In a market price is determined at the level at which demand equate supply as illustrated in figure 3. This discipline also offers explanation of factors that determine demand and supply. The factors that determine and influence demand are many. Demand is determined by changes in incomes of consumers, changes in tastes and fashion, changes in income tax, changes in population, changes in price of related goods, advertising and others. All of these factors bring shifts in demand curve and change equilibrium price and output. â€Å"British Gas reported 98 percent increase its six months operating profits of 2010 as compared to the same period during previous year â€Å"The profits reached to ?585m due to unusual cold winter which boosted the demand of  gas prices  by 8 percent.†( Aubin Lawrence, 2010) Price of related goods affects de mand has been witnessed, â€Å"With oil constantly trading above $100, consumers -- particularly those looking to buy cars -- are vying for alternatives that aren't too heavy on their wallets†(Debarati Bose,2011) Supply is determined by changes in costs of production, technical progress, changes in weather/disasters and others. All of these cause supply curve to shift and change equilibrium price and quantity.(Dan Moynihan and Brian Titley , p158-165) see figure 4 .On many occasions shortages are observed due to climatic changes and so forth. â€Å"European wheat stocks are expected to hit a 30-year low as dry weather could cut yields of some major European producers up to 20 percent†( Cat Contiguglia, 2011).See figure 4. Microeconomics analysis tells firms whether of raise prices or to decrease them. This...This paper demonstrates the main concepts of the Microeconomics. There is also 4 figures in the essay which graphically illustrates these concepts Microeconomics can be defined as a study of market behavior at micro level such as behavior of households and firms. It focuses on interactions between individual buyers and sellers and the factors that influence their decisions. In its broadest sense study of microeconomics deals with the efficient allocation of limited recourses that are available to fulfill unlimited wants of the society. This concepts is known as the basic economic problem which occurs due to scarcity. Due to scarcity individuals have to make a choice. This applies the principle of â€Å"opportunity cost† which is the cost of next best alternative forgone. Goods and services are produced by bringing together the four factors of production namely, land, labor, capital and enterprise. Production Possibility curve demonstrates principles of opportunity cost and full-employment Microeconomics explains price determination in goods and services markets and analyses the behavior of firms and consumers. This discipline also offers explanation of factors that determine demand and supply. Demand is determined by changes in incomes of consumers, changes in tastes and fashion, changes in income tax, changes in population, changes in price of related goods, advertising and others. Supply is determined by changes in costs of production, technical progress, changes in weather/disasters and others. with the help of microeconomics societies can predict behavior of firms and consumers and respond to possible changes in the markets. Causes and correlations can be identified with the help of theories that the disciple offers.

Discuss the activity in the laboratory that are designed to assure Assignment

Discuss the activity in the laboratory that are designed to assure Quality (Collection of specimen - Reporting ) - Assignment Example It is also important to collect the specimen with sterile instruments while preventing the specimen from coming into contact with any disinfectants (Stokes & Ridgeway 1980, p10). These precautions prevent the specimen from becoming contaminated while avoiding killing off any pathogens in the specimen. Lastly, there are specific procedures to be followed depending on the type of specimen being collected. Proper collection of specimens ensures that laboratory testing is accurate and safe. Once a specimen reaches the laboratory, thorough records must be kept for quality assurance and accuracy. It is especially important that care "should be taken to prevent reporting results on the wrong specimen and transposing digits in reporting quantitative data" (Kumari & Bhatia 2003, p160). The records must be detailed enough to determine any possible sources of error during testing. Keeping detailed and accurate records is essential for quality

Nursing theory application paper Parses Human Becoming Theory Essay

Nursing theory application paper Parses Human Becoming Theory - Essay Example The parent of bay AB was distraught of the news. The next couple of days were a time to observe the patients reacting from the different procedures to keep her alive. But the baby got worse and even developed subclinical seizures on continuous encephalagram and was decided to be placed under a pentabarb coma. After a week, physicians attending to the baby saw progress because of adjusted medicines and a more positive eeg results. The team of physicians attending to baby AB decided based on the positive results of the eeg and brought the baby out of the coma. During the patients rest towards recovery in the open heart unit, the neuro and airway status was continuously monitored. One realization during the case is that the patient’s family is another set of patients to be looked upon. Baby AB, given her sensitive and delicate case must be given all the necessary attention and care. The family must is taught of the feeding techniques through g-tube and how to monitor the signs of seizure and respiratory distress of baby AB. Fortunately the family has a very strong faith and believed in the approach if giving utmost importance to baby AB’s condition. Philosophical underpinnings of the human becoming theory Palliative care focuses on quality of life and the life of both the patient and his or her family. Given the sensitivity and serious condition of the patient, giving care to the patient does not only rely on the attending physicians and nurses on the case. But rather the medical team must also encourage support and assistance to the family who will be taking care of the patient and giving their 24 hours care for the patient. In relation with the case specified about, the theory under study that analyzes and is connected with this case is Parse's human becoming theory which focus on the humanly experiences of health that constitutes a process of becoming one with the universe and other entities in it. Parse's human becoming theory has its roots used as a nursing theory in the continental human science tradition. As a resolved theory that uses Parse's own experiences as a nurse, influence of Roger's conceptual system of nursing, and other tenets of existential phenomenology, the theory provides a theoretical system that explains how human beings is viewed as the expert and knowledgeable of his or her own health. The human becoming theory is an alternative theory that is presented by both conventional bio-medical approaches with biological, psychoanalytical, social and spiritual aspects. The theory focuses the personal quality of life as a goal in the nursing practice. The assumptions of this theory were synthesized from the works by European philosophers, Heidegger, Sarte and Marleau- Ponty together with American nurse theories influenced by Rogers.(Cody) Concepts and propositions of the theory The human becoming theory has three main themes or concepts. The first one is meaning. Meaning being the first principle of the theory relates that structuring multidimensional meanings is co- creating reality through the expression of value and image.(Parse, 1998) To simplify this concept, there is the principle that people participates in creating what is real for them through choices and self-expression of the values in their life and how they will implement the

Julphar (Gulf Pharmaceutical Industries) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Julphar (Gulf Pharmaceutical Industries) - Essay Example Rwanda requires companies to observe patent laws. Explicit registration procedures are in order to protect the work of innovators. Since Julphar will be in exporting materials needed for the production of medicine in Rwanda, it will be appropriate for a company to consider patent issues associated with exports to Rwanda. Incentives offered by the government of Rwanda to patients provide the company an opportunity to recover the costs of producing new medicine (GTZ, 2006). The political environment in Rwanda is stable after the country emerged from the 1994 skirmishes. Political turmoil affects operations of a business because wars may erupt (GTZ, 2006). The government of Rwanda is stable with the country recording progress in exercising governance. Julphar will have an advantage because the Rwandan government supports external investors who enjoy many business incentives. When the regime in power is stable, opportunities are opened for investors unlike when the government is with dictators. Rwanda has continued to record increased GDP in the past few years. More citizens are, therefore, able to purchase goods and services. The growth implies that there will be a ready market for the company’s product (GTZ, 2006). Economic conditions in Rwanda may create opportunities or threats to Julphar. The country’s GDP has continued to improve over the years implying that the existence of a robust, ready market because consumers have the purchasing power. The social, cultural practices and taboos will equally expose the company to new opportunities or threats since they influence consumption patterns (GTZ, 2010). Pharmaceutical industry is among the fastest growing industries globally. The development of the industry has been by via the efforts of the government to have a higher budget for carrying out marketing research and developmental projects in the pharmaceutical industry. The industry is worth more than $734, and it is expected to grow further (UK

USPS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

USPS - Essay Example Thus, the functional system if affected in the long run. II. Information system: which are supposed to ensure that information flows throughout the organization? However, the large number of union members makes it difficult for the organization to pass information to its members. This makes it difficult for the organizational members to make any meaningful decisions. This generally affects the team-building aspect of the organization and the financial situation of the organization only worsens the situation (Hicks, 2014). III. Divisional system ensures that an organization is able to enable its employees or members to have the required specialization and division of labor for the well-being of the organization. The employees reports to a general manager who then reports to a senior executive officer. However, the current absence of leadership makes the situation difficult. If the leaders were present in the organization, they could come up with creative strategies to motivate the workers thus enabling the required teamwork in the organization (Kille, 2013). Hicks, J. (2014, May 9). Postal Service lost $1.9 billion in second quarter, despite uptick for first-class mail. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/federal- eye/wp/2014/05/09/postal-service-lost-1-9-billion-in-second-quarter/ Kille, L. W. (2013, July 8). The U.S. Postal Service and financial sustainability: Research roundup. Retrieved from http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/budget/us- postal-service-financial-sustainability-research-roundup# Wieczner, J. (2012, August 27). Postal Service Financial Problems: 10 Things They Dont Want You to Know. Retrieved from

The image of Martin Luther King giving speech I Have a Dream in 1963 Annotated Bibliography

The image of Martin Luther King giving speech I Have a Dream in 1963 - Annotated Bibliography Example Moreover, the source offers information some of his civil right movements which is critical in answering the question on the ways in which he fought for the freedom of African Americans. Andrew Young the author of this book offers a chronological record of some of the experiences that Martin Luther went through during his struggle to campaign for the freedom of African Americans. The author was one of the leading members of the civil rights movement during that time and hence offers a detailed account of the mistreatment, police harassments and other challenges that Marti Luther remained resilient to because of his determination to see the African Americans treated as equal American citizens. This book is a powerful source in the discussion about Martin Luther’s experience and contributions in the civil rights movements. The author’s close association with Martin Luther as members of the civil rights movement serves to augment the reliability of the source. Daisy Bates the author of this book presents an extensive and intensive description of the efforts of African Americans to fight for equality. She describes the severity of the segregation that existed between the black and whites and then illustrates how some of the leaders of African American collaborated with the same mission of demanding for equality. From the details she provide, it becomes evident that martin Luther king was influential in this course. This book is a reliable source when describing the mission that Martin Luther was working to achieve. Since the book offers an in depth description, it becomes evident that it can be used to develop a clear understanding of how Martin Luther and his contemporaries who participated in the civil right movement strategized as they fought for the freedom of the African Americans. This book offers an extensive description of the belief and certain personality traits that helped shape the leadership of Martin Luther. The author of the book sought

Children’s Technology Usage Essay Example for Free

Children’s Technology Usage Essay When was the last time you truly spent time with your child? When was the last time your child ACTUALLY talked to you? Most parents honestly can’t answer that question or have to really think about it. Children nowadays depend on technology to get them through their lives. Spending too much time glued to technology causes kids to have no human interaction skills, it exposes them to inappropriate content and most importantly it poses serious health risks. As parents it is their responsibility to put restrictions on the technology their children are using. Children who are constantly communicating via technology are losing vital human interaction skills. Vincent Nichols once stated; â€Å"Were losing social skills, the human interaction skills, how to read a persons mood, to read their body language, how to be patient until the moment is right to make or press a point. Too much exclusive use of electronic information dehumanizes what is a very, very important part of community life and living together†. (Vincent Nichols. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com). This quote is a great summary of the future of our children. Do they know how to hold an actual conversation, how to present themselves, how to read body language? When texting you can’t tell someone’s tone of voice and you don’t have to deal with confrontation. How will children attend job interviews if they don’t know how to interact with people in person? These are the fears that every parent should have for their child. Not to mention that there is a complete absence of family time. Families now are not nearly as close as they have been in past generations. Children will lose the ability to express their feelings, they will not be comfortable talking about problems with their parents and siblings will not be as close. Limiting the amount of time that children spend with technology and enforcing technology free times will help promote family time and interaction with people. To add to the lack of human interaction skills, the amount of inappropriate con tent that can be accessed by children is endless. Parents are aware of what images there are on the internet and how easy it is to access them. Children have rather curious minds and the information they could attempt to access is endless. Most times they don’t even have to search inappropriate content; it is right in front of them through  commercials, pop up ads and friends. Everything from sexual content, to body image, to drugs and alcohol, and even to violence is out there for them to access. Putting restricts on what children search, watch and download will help limit their exposure to such content. Having access to these types of content at such young ages will cause serious health risks now and later in life. Putting restrictions on what children can view is simple to do. Most cable companies, phone providers and internet providers have guidelines and support to help parents place restrictions on what their children can search and watch. Finally, excess time spent using technology can lead to serious health risks. Often obesity is the only risk that people associate with too much time spent on technology such as video games, TV, and cell phones. However, the health risks go far beyond obesity. While it is true that too much screen time is known to decrease the amount of physical activity a child partakes in it is not the only risk. Young girls who are already self conscious of their looks can find entire internet societies that brainwash them into thinking they need to be a picture perfect twig and teach them how to become one through anorexia and bulimia. Also, dependency on technology and always being in the now causes sleep disorders, stress and anxiety. Lack of sleep can cause mood disorders and the affects of stress and anxiety in young children can carry with them into their teenage and adult years making it more difficult to recover from. Drugs and alcohol and often glorified and young teens think that they need to do them to be cool causing addiction, overdose, and even death. Making sure that their children are healthy and safe should be a parent’s main concern. Placing restrictions on technology will help ensure that their children stay alive. As parents it is their responsibility to put restrictions on the technology their children are using. What kind of future do parents want for their children? Parents now are already at a disadvantage of raising their children in an era full of technology. They have their work cut out for them to make sure that their children are not dependent on technology and that they learn human interaction skills. Keeping their children protected from the inappropriate content and ensuring that their children do not suffer from mental and physical health problems as a result of technology should be every parent’s priority. Every parent should be placing restrictions on when and what their children are using technology for. References: Vincent Nichols. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved September 22, 2014, from BrainyQuote.com Web site: http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/v/vincentnic532641.html

Four Stroke Four Cylinder Petrol Engine

Four Stroke Four Cylinder Petrol Engine ABSTRACT Since last 150 years different type of engine used in different vehicles so one should know how the engine works and different parameters related to it. This project contains preparation of experimental setup to determine the various performance parameter of four stroke four cylinder petrol engine in first stage of project. In this stage of project, the Morse test setup with Rope brake dynamometer will be prepared for the measurement of engine performance parameters such as Break power, Indicated power, Friction power, Mass flow rate, Brake thermal efficiency, etc. In the second stage study of existing engine and scuderi split engine to be done and effort will be done to develop scuderi split engine. Since last 150 years no modification has been done for basic engine design. This scuderi split engine completely change the design structure of engine. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Project on EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT OF FOUR STROKE FOUR CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE DEVELOPEMENT OF SCUDERI SPLIT ENGINE consist of two stages. In first stage of the project, experimental setup for 4-cylinder petrol engine (Morse test) will be developed to determine the various engine performance parameters such as Break power, Indicated power, Friction power, Mass flow rate, Brake thermal efficiency, etc. The basic task in the design and development of engines is to reduce the cost of production and improve the efficiency and power output. In order to achieve the above task, the development engineer has to compare the engine developed with other engines in terms of its output and efficiency. Towards this end he has to test the engine and make measurements of relevant parameters that reflect the performance of the engine. For this the various test perform on engine are as follow: Willans line method Morse test Motoring test From the measurement of indicated and brake power Retardation test From this set-up of Morse test is simple and comparatively easy to conduct. Here, Rope brake dynamometer is used to measure power output. In second stage of project, the study of the scuderi split engine will be done comparison of it with conventional engine (4-S 4 Cylinder Petrol engine of Fiat Make). In conventional 4 Stroke engine, four strokes such as intake, compression, power exhaust performed in the single cylinder. While in scuderi split engine above Strokes performed in two cylinder which are connected using cross-over passage, in which pressure remains constant, in which two stroke intake compression take place in First cylinder, remaining stroke power exhaust take place in Second cylinder. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY 2.1 Introduction: The internal combustion engine is an engine in which combustion of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This exothermic reaction creates gases at high temperature and pressure which are permitted to expand. The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that useful work is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause movement of solid parts of the engine, by acting on pistons, rotors, or even by pressing on and moving the entire engine itself. The first internal combustion engines did not have compression, but run on air/fuel mixture sucked or blown in during the first part of the intake stroke. The most significant difference between modern internal combustion engines and the early designs was the use of compression and in particular of in-cylinder compression. 1876: Nikolaus Otto working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach had developed a practical four-stroke cycle (Otto cycle) engine. 2.2. Application of I.C. engine:- Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in automobiles, equipment, and other portable machinery. In mobile equipment internal combustion is advantageous, since it can provide high power to weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy-density. These engines have appeared in transport in almost all automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives, generally using petroleum (called All-Petroleum Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles or APICEVs) . Where very high power is required, such as jet aircraft, helicopters and large ships, they appear mostly in the form of turbines. 2.3. Classification of I.C. Engine:- The internal combustion engine may be classified in many ways, but following are the subject point of view: 1) According to the type of fuel used (a)Petrol engine (b)Diesel engine (c)Gas engine 2) According to the method of igniting the fuel (a)Spark ignition engine (b)Compression ignition engine (c)Hot spot ignition engine 3) According to the number of stroke per cycle (a)Four stroke cycle engine (b)Two stroke cycle engine 4) According to the cycle of operation (a)Otto cycle (b)Diesel cycle (c)Dual cycle 5) According to the speed of the engine (a)Slow speed engine (b)Medium speed engine (c)High speed engine 6) According to the cooling system (a)Air cooled engine (b)Water cooled engine (c)Evaporative cooling engines 7) According to method of fuel injection (a)Carburettor engine (b)Air injection engines (c)Airless or solid injection engines 8) According to number of cylinder (a)Single cylinder engines (b)Multi cylinder engines 9) According to arrangement of cylinder (a)Vertical cylinder engines (b)Horizontal cylinder engines (c)Radial engines (d)In-line multi cylinder engines (e)V-type multi-cylinder engines (f)Opposite-cylinder engines (g)Apposite piston engines 10) According to the valve mechanism (a)Overhead valve engines (b)Side valve engines 11) According to the method of governing (a)Hit and miss governed engines (b)Quantitatively governed engines (c)Qualitatively governed engines 2.4 Basic Engine Parts:- 2.4.1 Cylinder block:- The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for the various components. The cylinders of multi-cylinder engine are cast as single unit, called cylinder block. The cylinder head mounted on the cylinder block .The cylinder head and cylinder block are provided with water jacket for cooling. 2.4.2 Cylinder:- As the name implies it is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating motion. The varying volume created in the cylinder during the operation of the engine is filled with the working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamics processes such as suction, compression, combustion, expansion and exhaust .The cylinder is supported in cylinder block. 2.4.3 Combustion chamber:- The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the cylinder head and the piston top during the combustion process, is called the combustion chamber. 2.4.4. Piston: Piston is the heart of the engine. The functions of the piston are to compress the charge during the compression stroke and to transmit the gas force to the connecting rod and then to the crank during power stroke. The piston is a disc which reciprocates within cylinder. It is either moved by the fluid or it moves the fluid which enters the cylinder. The main function of the piston of an internal combustion engine is to receive the impulse from the expanding gas and to transmit the energy to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. The piston of internal combustion engines are usually of trunk type. This type of piston consists of different parts such as Head or Crown, Piston rings, Skirt, Piston pin etc. 2.4.5. Piston Ring: Piston rings provide a sliding seal between the outer edge of the piston and the inner edge of the cylinder. The rings serve two purposes: 1. They prevent the fuel/air mixture and exhaust in the combustion chamber from leaking into the sump during compression and combustion. 2. They keep oil in the sump from leaking into the combustion area, where it would be burned and lost. A piston ring is an open-ended ring that fits into a groove on the outer diameter of a piston in an internal combustion engine. The gap in the piston ring compresses to a few thousandths of an inch when inside the cylinder bore. 2.4.6 Inlet manifold:- The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn in to the cylinder is called inlet manifold. 2.4.7 Exhaust manifold:- The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine and through which the product of combustion escape in to the atmosphere is called the exhaust manifold. 2.4.8 Inlet and exhaust valve:- Valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type. They are provided either on the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming in to the cylinder (inlet valve) and for discharging the products of combustion from the cylinder (exhaust valve). 2.4.9. Connecting Rod: The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It can rotate at both ends so that its angle can change as the piston moves and the crankshaft rotates. The small end attaches to the piston pin, gudgeon pin (the usual British term) or wrist pin, which is currently most often press fit into the con rod but can swivel in the piston, a floating wrist pin design. The big end connects to the bearing journal on the crank throw, running on replaceable bearing shells accessible via the con rod bolts which hold the bearing cap onto the big end; typically there is a pinhole bored through the bearing and the big end of the con rod so that pressurized lubricating motor oil squirts out onto the thrust side of the cylinder wall to lubricate the travel of the pistons and piston rings. 2.4.10. Spark Plug: The spark plug supplies the spark that ignites the air/fuel mixture so that combustion can occur. The spark must happen at just the right moment for things to work properly. 2.4.11. Crank shaft: The crankshaft turns the pistons up and down motion into circular motion just like a crank on a jack-in-the-box does. The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an engine which translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation. It typically connects to a flywheel, to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the torsion vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal. 2.4.12. Cam shaft:- The camshaft and its associated parts control the opening and closing of the two valves. The associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tappets. This shaft also provides the drive to the ignition system. 2.4.13. Gudgeon pin: It forms the link between the small end of the connecting rod and the piston. 2.4.14. Cam:- These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are designed in such way to open the valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for necessary duration. 2.4.15. Fly wheel: The net torque imparted to crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of the engine fluctuates causing a change in the angular velocity of the shaft. In order to achieve a uniform torque an inertia mass in the form of a wheel attached to the output shaft and this wheel is called the flywheel. 2.4.16. Sump:- The sump surrounds the crankshaft. It contains some amount of oil, which collects in the bottom of the sump (the oil pan). 2.5. DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATERIAL USE FOR ENGINE PARTS:- 2.5.1. Cylinder liner: The cylinder liners are made in two types: wet liner dry liner. In case of wet liner, water in jacket is in direct contact with the outer wall of the liner; where as the dry liner is pressed into the cylinder proper. In engines over about 13cm bore; usually the wet type of liner is used. Liner materials: The liner material should be strong hard corrosion resistance. The following materials are used. 1. A good grade grey cast iron with homogenous and close grained structure i.e. prelatic and similar cast iron. 2. Nickel cast iron and nickel chromium cast iron 3. Nickel chromium cast steel with molybdenum in some case. 2.5.2. Material of cylinder head:- The cylinder head are usually made of close grained cast iron or alloy cast iron containing nickel, chromium and molybdenum, for small sized engine, while for large engine, the material is low Cast-steel. 2.5.3. Material used for piston piston ring:- Commonly used materials for piston of I.C. engine are cast iron, cast aluminum, cast steel forged steel. Generally cast steel is used for piston head. The material for the piston ring is cast iron alloy cast iron due to their good wearing qualities also they retain the spring characteristics even at high temperature. The material used for piston ring is nitrogen hardened or case hardened steel alloy containing nickel, chromium, molybdenum or vanadium. 2.5.4. Material used for connecting road:- The connecting rods of I.C.engine are mostly manufactured by drop forging. The material for connecting rod ranges from mild or medium carbon steel to alloy steels. In industrial engine, carbon steel with ultimate tensile strength ranging from 550-670Mpa is used. 2.5.5. Material used for crankshaft: The cylinder head are usually made of close grained cast iron or alloy cast iron containing nickel, chromium and molybdenum, for small sized engine, while for large engine, the material is low C-steel. Heavy duty cast iron, cast steel, nickel chromium steel is mainly used for manufacturing of crank shaft. 2.5.6. Material used for valves: Inlet valve run cooler than exhaust valves. So, the material for the inlet valves may be carbon steel, nickel steel, chrome nickel steel chrome molybdenum alloy, which may be hardened to withstand the repeated high stresses. Material for exhaust valves must be able to maintain their strength at high temperature. Therefore the material used for it is standard chrome nickel steel, cobalt nickel steel, high speed steel stainless steels. 2.6 NOMENCLATURE:- 2.6.1 Cylinder bore (d): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder is called the cylinder bore. It is expressed in millimeter (mm). 2.6.2 Piston area: The area of the circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called the piston area. It is expressed by square centimeter (cm ²). 2.6.3 Stroke (L): The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two successive reversals of its direction of motion is called the stroke is expressed in millimeter (mm). 2.6.4 Stroke to bore ratio: L/d ratio is an important parameter in classifying the size of the engine. If d If d=L, it is called square engine. If d>L, it is called over -square engine. An over square engine can operate at higher speeds because of large bore shorter stroke. 2.6.5 Dead center: The position of the working piston the moving parts which are mechanically connected to it, at the moment when the direction of the piston motion is reversed at either end of the stroke is called the dead center. There are two dead centers in the engine: Top dead center (TDC): It is the dead centers when the piston is farthest from the crankshaft. It is designated TDC for vertical engines inner dead center (IDC) for horizontal engines. Bottom dead center (BTC): It is the dead center when the piston is nearest to the crankshaft. It is designated as BDC for the vertical engines outer dead center (ODC) for horizontal engines. 2.6.6 Displacement or Swept volume: The nominal volume swept by the working piston when traveling from one dead center to other is called the displacement volume. It is expressed in terms of cubic centimeter (cc) given by VS = à Ã¢â€š ¬d ²L/4 2.6.7 Cubic Capacity of Engine Capacity: The displacement volume of a cylinder multiplied by number of cylinders in an engine capacity. For example, if there are K cylinders in an engine, then Cubic capacity = Vs x K 2.6.8 Clearance Volume (Vc): The nominal volume of the combustion chamber above the piston when it is at the top dead centre is the clearance volume. It is designated as Vc and expressed in cubic centimeter (cc). 2.6.9 Compression Ratio (r): it is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the piston is at the bottom dead centre, Vt, to the clearance volume, Vc. It is designed by the letter r. r = Vt/Vc = (Vc + Vs)/Vc = 1 + Vs/Vc CHAPTER 3 WORKING OF AN I.C. ENGINE I.C. engine is a device which develops the work continuously taking the working fluid through cyclic process. The combination of piston and cylinder is suitable device for developing the work. In an arrangement of piston and cylinder of an ideal engine, following for process constitute the cycle: The air is compressed in the engine. Heat is added to the compressed air by external source. High pressure and high temperature air expands performing the work. The air after expansion returns to the original condition by rejecting heat to external sink. 3.1 The working principle of four-stroke spark ignition engine:- If an engine is to work successfully then it has to follow a cycle of operation in sequential manner. The sequence is quite rigid and can not be changed. In the following sections the working principle of both SI and CI engines is described. Even though both engines have much in common there are certain fundamental differences. The cycle of operation for an ideal four-stroke SI engine consist of the following four-stroke:- 1. Intake or suction stroke 2. Compression stroke 3. Power or expansion stroke 4. Exhaust stroke Intake or suction stroke :- Suction stroke starts when the piston is at the top dead centre and about to move downwards. The inlet valve is open at this time and exhaust valve is closed. Due to the suction created by the motion of the piston towards the bottom dead centre, the charge consisting of fuel-air mixture is drawn in to the cylinder. When the piston reaches the bottom dead centre the suction stroke ends and the inlet valve closes. compression stroke :- The charge taken in to the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed by the return stroke of the piston. During this stroke both inlet and exhaust valves are in closed position. The mixture which fills the entire cylinder volume is now compressed in to the clearance volume. At the end of the compression stoke the mixture is ignited with the help of a spark plug located on the cylinder head. During the burning process the chemical energy of the fuel is converted in to heat energy producing temperature rise of about 2000 °C.The pressure at the end of the combustion process is considerably increased due to the heat release from the fuel. Expansion or power stroke :- The high pressure of the burnt gases forces the piston towards BDC. Both, the valves are in closed position .Of the four stroke only during this stroke power is produced. Both pressure and temperature decrease during expansion. Exhaust stroke :- At the end of the expansion stroke exhaust valve opens and inlet valve remains closed. The pressure falls to atmospheric level a part of the burnt gases escape. The piston starts moving from the bottom dead centre to top dead centre and sweeps the burnt gases out from the cylinder almost at atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve closes when the piston reaches TDC .At the end of the exhaust stroke and some residual gases trapped in the clearance volume remain in the cylinder. CHAPTER 4 ACTUAL CYCLE FOR I.C.ENGINE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACTUAL CYCLE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE:- The working substance is not air but a mixture of fuel and air during suction and compression and many gases during expansion and exhaust. Combustion of fuel not only adds the heat but changes the chemical composition also. The specific heat of gases changes with respect to temp. The residual gases change the composition, temp. and amount of fresh charge. The constant volume combustion is not possible. Compression and expansion are not isentropic. There is always some heat loss-due to heat transfer from the hot gases to cylinder walls. There is exhaust blow down loss due to early opening of exhaust valve. 4.2 VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM FOR 4-STROKE PETROL ENGINE:- (1) Inlet valve:- The intake valve should open, theoretically, at TDC; almost all SI engines an intake valve opening of a few degrees before TDC on the exhaust stroke. This is to ensure that the valve will be fully open and the fresh charge starts to flow into cylinder as soon as the piston reaches TDC. In figure ( ), the intake valve starts to open 10 o before TDC. As the piston descends on the intake stroke, the fresh charge is drawn in through the intake port and valve. It may be noted from figure ( ), that for a low speed engine, the intake valve closes 10o after BDC, and for a high speed engine, 60o after BDC. If the inlet valve is allowed to close at BDC, the cylinder would receive less charge than its capacity and the pressure of the charge at the end of the suction stroke will be below atmosphere. When the piston reaches BDC and start to ascend on the compression stroke, the inertia of the fresh charge tends to cause it to continue to move into the cylinder. At low engine speeds, the charge is moving into the cylinder relatively slowly, and its inertia is relatively low. If the intake valve were to remain open much beyond BDC, the up moving piston on the compression would tends to force some of the charge, already in the cylinder back into the intake manifold, with consequent reduction in volumetric efficiency. Hence, the intake valve is closed relatively early after BDC for a slow speed engine. For High Speed Engine, Inlet Valve closing is delayed after BDC to take above advantage. (2) Exhaust valve:- The exhaust valve usually opens before the piston reaches BDC on the expansion stroke. This reduces the work done by the expanding gases during power stroke, but decreases the work necessary to expel the burned products during exhaust stroke, and the result in an overall gain in output. During the exhaust stroke, the piston forces the burned gases out at high velocity. If the closing of the exhaust valve is delayed beyond TDC, the inertia of the exhaust gases tends to scavenge the cylinder better by carrying out greater mass of the gas left in the clearance volume, and result in increased volumetric efficiency. Consequently, the exhaust valve is often set to close a few degrees after TDC on the exhaust stroke, as indicated in figure ( ), it should be noted that it is quit possible for both the intake and exhaust valves to remain open, or partially open, at the same time. This is termed the valve overlap. (3) Ignition:- It would be proper to produce spark at the end of compression if the charge could burn instantaneously. How ever, there is always a time lag between the spark and ignition of the charge. The ignition starts some time after giving the spark, it is necessary to produce the spark before piston reaches the TDC to obtain proper combustion without losses. The angle through which the spark is given earlier is known as Ignition advance or Angle of advance 4.3 SOURCES OF LOSSES:- The difference between I.P. B.P. is known as total friction loss. This includes direct mechanical friction throttling losses through valves, pumping loss, blow down losses many others. 4.3.1. Direct frictional losses:- It includes bearing losses, as main bearing, camshaft bearing, and piston cylinder friction loss in many moving parts. The frictional losses are comparatively higher in reciprocating I.C. Engine. 4.3.2. Pumping losses:- The difference of work done in expelling the exhaust gases and the work done by fresh charge during the suction stroke is called the pumping work. In other words loss due to the gas exchange process (Pumping Loss) is due to pumping gas from lower inlet pressure to higher exhaust pressure. The pumping loss increases at part throttle because throttling reduces the suction pressure. Pumping loss increases with speed. The gas exchange processes affect the volumetric efficiency of the engine. 4.3.3. Blow by losses:- This loss because of leakage of combustion products past the piston forms the cylinder into the crank case. This loss depends upon inlet pressure and compression ratio .This loss increase directly with compression ratio but reduced with an increase in the engine speed. 4.3.4. Valve throttling losses:- The standard practice for sizing the exhaust valve is to produce smaller exhaust area than inlet valve area. This increases the pumping loss as smaller area resists more for the flow of exhaust gasses. This increase in speed of the engine rapidly if the valve size, valve timing and valve flow coefficients are not designed properly as shown in fig. by dotted line . The inlet throttling occurs due to the restrictions imposed by air cleaner, carburettor, and venture, throttle valve, inlet manifold and inlet valve. All these add in pressure loss .Similarly some pressure loss occurs during exhausting the burned gases. 4.3.5. Combustion chamber pump losses:- This loss occurs with pre-combustion chamber. This loss occurs due to the pumping work required to push the air into pre-combustion chamber through small orifice. This depends upon orifice size, and speed. It also increases with increasing the engine speed. 4.3.6. Power loss to drive the auxiliaries:- Some power is required to drive the auxiliaries such as water pump, fuel pump, cooling fan generator. This is also considered as loss as part of engine power developed is used for these purposes. 4.3.7. Heat loss factor:- During the combustion process and expansion the heat flows through the cylinder head. Some heat enters the piston and flows through the piston rings into the cylinder wall or is carried away by the engine lubricating oil which splashes on the underside of the piston. The heat loss along with other losses is shown on p-v diagram (Figure ( )). Heat loss during combustion has maximum effect on cycle efficiency while heat loss just before the end of expansion stroke has very little effect because of the contribution of useful work is very little. The heat lost during the combustion doesnt represent the complete loss only about 15% of total heat is lost during combustion expansion. If all the heat loss is recovered only 20% of if may appear as useful work. The effect of loss of heat during combustion is to reduce the maximum temperature and therefore, the specific heats are lower. Heat loss factor contributes around 12% to all their losses 4.3.8. Time loss factor:- In a thermodynamic cycle heat addition is assumed to be instantaneous process where as in actual cycle it is over a definite period of time .the time required for combustion is such that under all circumstances some change in volume takes place while it is in progress. The consequence of finite time of combustion is that peak pressure will not occur when volume is minimum i.e. when the piston at TDC but it will occur sometime after TDC. 4.3.9. Exhaust blow down:- The cylinder pressure at the end of exhaust stroke is about 7 bar depending on the compressor ratio. If the exhaust valve is opened at bottom dead centre the piston has to do work against high cylinder pressure during the part of the exhaust stroke. If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part of the expansion stroke is lost. The best compromise is to open the exhaust valve 40 to 700 before BDC. Thereby, reducing the cylinder pressure to halfway to atmospheric before the exhaust stroke begins. 4.3.10. Knocking in SI- Engine:- Knocking is due to the auto-ignition of the end portion of the unburned charge in the combustion chamber. As the normal flame front proceeds across the chamber, the pressure the temp of the unburned charge increase due to compression by the burned portion of the charge. This unburned compressed charge may auto ignite under certain temp. Conditions release the energy at a very rapid rate compared to normal combustion process in the cylinder. This rapid release of energy during auto-ignition causes a high pressure differential in the c.c. and a high pressure wave is released from auto-ignition region. The motion of high pressure compression waves inside the cylinder causes vibration of the engine parts and pinking noise and it is known as knocking or detonation. Effect of knocking:- Mechanical damage:- Knocking creates very high pressure wave (200bar) of large amplitude. This increases the rate of wear almost of all mechanical parts like piston, cylinder head, valves. The frequency of this wave is as large as 5000 CPS. (2) Noise:- When the intensity of knock is high, a loud pulsating noise is created because of high intensity pressure wave vibrates back and forth across the cylinder. This noise is like as bell noise. (3) Increase in heat transfer rate:- When the engine is knocking, more heat is lost to the coolant as the dissipating rate increases. The major reason of increases in heat transfer rate during knocking is, the boundary layer of the gas near the wall is removed because of high vibration of gas molecules. (4) Power output:- It is also observed that slightly rated spark develops more power under knocking condition. This may be due to rapid burning of the last part of the charge and retard spark may be optimum under knocking. (5) Pre ignition:- It defined as an ignition of the charge as it comes in contact with hot surface, in the absence of spark. Auto ignition may overheat the spark plug and exhaust valve and it remains so hot that its temp. is sufficient to ignite the charge in the next cycle during the compression stroke before the spark occurs an this causes the pre ignition of the charge. The temperature required for pre i